The birth of Moscovia

Muscovy, also known as the Great Principality of Moscow, was a Russian state that existed from the 13th to the 16th century. It was formed in the northern territories of the first East Slavic state, called Kievan Rus, and was the predecessor of the Russian Tsarate, which in turn was succeeded by the Russian Empire.

 

Muscovy was ruled by an absolute monarchy. The princes of Moscow were descendants of the first prince Daniel, known in modern historiography as the Daniilovichi, a branch of the Rurikovichi. The state originated in 1263 when Daniel inherited the territory as an appanage from his father Alexander Nevsky, Prince of Vladimir-Suzdal.

 

The first Muscovite prince was Daniil Alexandrovich (1283-1303), who secured the principality for his family. His son, Ivan I of Russia (1316-1340), called Ivan Kalita, obtained the title of Grand Prince of Vladimir from the Mongol leaders, who then ruled the land. Those mongols were known as the “Golden Hotde” He cooperated closely with the Mongols, collecting tribute from other principalities that splintered Kievan Rus'. This relationship earned him regional ascendancy, particularly over Moscow's main rival, the Principality of Tver.

 

Daniil Alexandrovich, also known as Saint Daniel of Moscow to the Orthodox Church (1261 - March 4, 1303), was the first prince of Moscow. He was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky and Aleksandra Briachislavna (Vassa, after becoming a nun) .

 

Having started his political career as ruler of the weak Moscow principality, Daniel was involved in civil strife between his older brothers Andrei of Gorodets and Dmitri of Pereslavl. Daniel's participation in the struggle for the Novgorod governorship in 1296 shows that Moscow gained political influence during his reign. In 1301, he imprisoned the Ryazan prince for his intention to conquer the Moscow lands in alliance with the Tatars. To gain freedom, the prisoner ceded his fortress in Kolomna to Daniel, a very important possession as it guaranteed control along the Moskva River. In 1302 his cousin and ally, Ivan of Pereslavl, bequeathed to Daniel all of his lands, including his possessions in Pereslavl-Zalesski.

 

Daniel of Moscow is known as a wise ruler for the policy of making peace between the rulers of neighboring lands and peaceful acquisition of new lands for his own principality. He founded the first monasteries in Moscow: St. Daniel and the Epiphany of the Lord. In one of them he took the rest of his life, taking the habit. He rested in peace in his cell on March 4, 1303. His relics were recovered incorrupt on August 30, 1652. The same year he was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church.

Duchy of Burgundy

The Duchy of Burgundy was a fief that roughly corresponded to the French region of Burgundy. Thanks to its wealth and relatively extensive territory, the duchy was important both politically and economically, serving as the core of the so-called Burgundian State. The initial dynasty of the Dukes of Burgundy came to an end in 1026, with the death without descendants of the house's heir, Duke Otto William of Burgundy. But the duchy had already been annexed in 1016 by Henry I, who became duke in 1061. The title of Duke of Burgundy was granted by the King of France to princes, and a priori to the eldest sons of the Dauphin. Felipe III, Duke of Burgundy, called "Philippe the Good" (in French: Philippe le Bon; Dijon, July 31, 1396 - Bruges, June 15, 1467), was also called Grand Duke of the West due to the breadth of his territories under the influence of the Duchy, which included the Netherlands.

The Burgundian State is a modern term, coined to designate the political union under the authority of the Duke of Burgundy, but which has historical foundations as it derives from the same denominations of the 15th and 16th centuries. This conglomerate of territories lacked a unique title that expressed the idea of political unity, but the Duchy of Burgundy stands out among all of them, since the holder of the duchy was the Grand Master and Sovereign Head of the Order of the Golden Fleece. The State Burgundian or Burgundian Estates refers to all possessions acquired by the Dukes of Burgundy and their heirs over nearly two centuries, between 1363 and 1559.

 

The Duke of Burgundy tried to establish a link between the Burgundian lands proper and the northern Dutch lands to create a Burgundian kingdom. However, the Burgundian State lacked a singular title that expressed the idea of political unity. Furthermore, the Burgundian State or Burgundian Estates refers to all the possessions acquired by the Dukes of Burgundy and their heirs during almost two centuries, between 1363 and 1559, as said above

Pharaoh Horemheb

Horemheb was the last pharaoh of the 18th dynasty of Egypt. His name means “Horus is in jubilation” . He ruled Egypt between 1323 and 1295 BC, after a period of political turmoil . Horemheb was a general and decided to build himself a magnificent tomb upon accessing the throne of Egypt. This tomb has become one of the main attractions of the Valley of the Kings since its discovery in 1905.

Horemheb came from the lower classes of Egypt and worked himself up through the ranks of the army to become commander-in-chief of the Egyptian military before becoming pharaoh . After his accession to the throne, he initiated a nation-wide campaign to erase his immediate predecessor’s names from history and revitalize the nation that had declined under Akhenaten’s rule. The heretical monotheist phraoh who shunned all the egyptians old gods. . He is generally considered a good pharaoh, but whether he is a hero or villain depends upon one’s view of Akhenaten’s reign and Horemheb’s reaction to it.

 

Horemheb continued the restoration of the traditional Amon religion that, Akhenaten, had replaced with the worship of the god Aton . He completed the dismantling of the temples of Aton built at Karnak in order to suppress what was considered an aberrant religion . At the same time, he restored many of the damaged reliefs and statues portraying the god Amon and erected three of the largest pylons at Karnak, as well as several other significant monuments in the Theban area . Horemheb brought stability and prosperity back to Ancient Egypt after the chaotic rule of the “Armana Kings”

 

It is not yet proven whether Horemheb had really exorcised the Amarna period; the great iconoclasm began only after his death . After Horemheb’s death, his vizier, the general Ramses I, became his successor and founded the 19th dynasty (1292–1190 bc)

Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate

Julian, also known as Julian the Apostate, was a Roman emperor from 361 to 363. He was a nephew of Constantine the Great and a notable philosopher and author in Greek.  Julian publicly announced his conversion to paganism in 361, thus acquiring the epithet “the Apostate”

 Julian was born in 331 or 332 in Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey) . He was the son of Julius Constantius and Basilina . Julian became an orphan as a child after his father was executed in 337, and spent much of his life under Emperor Constantius’s close supervision . However, the emperor allowed Julian to freely pursue an education in the Greek-speaking east, with the result that Julian became unusually cultured for an emperor of his time .

 

Julian was a man of unusually complex character. He was the last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire, and he believed that it was necessary to restore the Empire’s ancient Roman values and traditions in order to save it from dissolution. He purged the top-heavy state bureaucracy, and attempted to revive traditional Roman religious practices at the expense of Christianity . In 351, he converted to the pagan Neoplatonism, recently “reformed” by Iamblichus, and was initiated into theurgy by Maximus of Ephesus .

 

In 355, Constantius II summoned Julian to court and appointed him to rule Gaul. Despite his inexperience, Julian showed unexpected success in his new capacity, defeating and counterattacking Germanic raids across the Rhine and encouraging the ravaged provinces’ return to prosperity . In 360, he was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers at Lutetia (Paris), sparking a civil war with Constantius. However, Constantius died before the two could face each other in battle, and named Julian as his successor .

 

In 363, Julian embarked on an ambitious campaign against the Sasanian Empire. The campaign was initially successful, securing a victory outside Ctesiphon in Mesopotamia. However, he did not attempt to besiege the capital. Julian instead moved into Persia’s heartland, but he soon faced supply problems and was forced to retreat northwards while being ceaselessly harassed by Persian skirmishers. During the Battle of Samarra, Julian was mortally wounded under mysterious circumstances. He died on June 26 or 27, 363 in Ctesiphon, Mesopotamia .