Don Juan de Austria, the chief the Victors of the battle of Lepanto

Don Juan de Austria, Don John of Austria (English)  was the natural son of the emperor Charles V by Barbara Blomberg, the daughter of an opulent citizen of Regensburg. He was born in that free imperial city on the 24th of February 1545, the anniversary of his father's birth and coronation and of the battle of Pavia, and was at first confided under the name of Geronimo to foster parents of humble birth, living at a village near Madrid; but in 1554 he was transferred to the charge of Madalena da Ulloa, the wife of Don Luis de Quijada, and was brought up in ignorance of his parentage at Quijada's castle of Villagarcia not far from Valladolid. Charles V in a codicil of his will recognized Geronimo as his son, and recommended him to the care of his successor. 

           

In September 1559 Philip II of Spain publicly recognized the boy as a member of the royal family, and he was known at court as Don Juan de Austria. For three years he was educated at Alcalfi, and had as school companions his nephews, the infante Don Carlos and Alessandro Farnese, prince of Parma. With Don Carlos his relations were especially friendly. It had been Philip's intention that Don John should become a monk, but he showed a strong inclination for a soldier's career and the king yielded. In 1568 Don John was appointed to the command of a squadron of 33 galleys, and his first operations were against the Algerian pirates. His next services were (1569-70) against the rebel Moriscos in Granada. In 1571 a nobler field of action was opened to him. The conquest of Cyprus by the Turks had led the Christian powers of the Mediterranean to fear for the safety of the Adriatic. A league between Spain and Venice was effected by the efforts of Pope Pius V to resist the Turkish advance to the west, and Don John was named admiral in chief of the combined fleets. At the head of 208 galleys, 6 galleasses and a number of smaller craft, Don John encountered the Turkish fleet at Lepanto on the 7th of October 1571, and gained a complete victory. Only forty Turkish vessels effected their escape, and it was computed that 35,000 of their men were slain or captured while 15,000 Christian galley slaves were released. Unfortunately, through divisions and jealousies between the allies, the fruits of one of the most decisive naval victories in history were to a great extent lost.

 

           

This great triumph aroused Don John's ambition and filled his imagination with schemes of personal aggrandizement. He thought of erecting first a principality in Albania and the Morea, and then a kingdom in Tunis. But the conclusion by Venice of a separate peace with the sultan put an end to the league, and though Don John captured Tunis in 1573, it was again speedily lost. The schemes of Don John found no support in Philip II, who refused to entertain them, and even withheld from his half-brother the title of infante of Spain.

             

 

At last, however, Don Juan was appointed (1576) governor-general of the Netherlands, in succession to Luis de Requesens. The administration of the latter had not been successful, the revolt headed by the Prince of Orange had spread, and at the time of Don John's nomination the Pacification of Ghent appeared to have united the whole of the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands, in determined opposition to Spanish rule and the policy of Philip II. The magic of Don John's name, and the great qualities of which he had given proof, were to recover what had been lost. He was, however, now brought into contact with an adversary of a very different calibre from himself. This was William of Orange, whose influence was now supreme throughout the Netherlands.

           

The Pacification of Ghent, which was really a treaty between Holland and Zeeland and the other provinces for the defense of their common interests against Spanish rule, had been followed by an agreement between the southern provinces, known as the Union of Brussels, which, though maintaining the Catholic religion and the king's authority, aimed at the expulsion of the Spanish soldiery and officials from the Netherlands. Confronted by the refusal of the States General to accept him as governor, unless he assented to the conditions of the Pacification of Ghent, swore to maintain the rights and privileges of the provinces, and to employ only Netherlanders in his service, Don John, after some months of fruitless negotiations, saw himself compelled to give way. At Huey on the 12th of February 1577 he signed a treaty, known as the "Perpetual Edict", in which he complied with these terms. On the 1st of May he made his entry into Brussels, but he found himself governor-general only in name, and the Prince of Orange master of the situation. In July he suddenly betook himself to Namur and withdrew his concessions. William of Orange forthwith took up his residence at Brussels, and gave his support to the archduke Matthias, afterwards emperor, whom the Sstates-General accepted as their sovereign.

 

Meanwhile Philip had sent large reinforcements to Don John under the leadership of his cousin Alexander Farnese. At the head of a powerful force Don John now suddenly attacked the rebel army at Gemblours, where, chiefly by the skill and daring of Farnese, a complete victory was gained on the 31st of January 1578. He could not, however, follow up his success for lack of funds, and was compelled to remain inactive all the summer, chafing with impatience at the cold indifference with which his appeals for the sinews of war were treated by Philip. His health gave way, he was attacked with fever, and on the 1st of October 1578, at the early age of 33, Don John died, heartbroken at the failure of all his soaring ambitions, and at the repeated proofs that he had received of the king his brother's mistrust.

 

 

Don John of Austria Born: 24-Feb-1547

Birthplace: Regensburg, Germany

Died: 1-Oct-1578

Location of death: Bouges, Belgium

Cause of death: Fever

Ancient Egypt: Daily Life of a Pharaoh

 The sun rises on yet another bright day in ancient Egypt. A man wakes up, but this isn't any ordinary man: this is the pharaoh.

 

This is the last time he will be alone . He has many officials, servants and slaves to make sure he is always safe and perfectly presented.

 

His day begins with cleaning and dressing by servants including the splendidly named "Chief of the Scented Oils and Pastes for Rubbing His Majesty's Body". When he is clean, he is dressed and adorned with a huge amount of jewelry. After all, he's the pharaoh. He owns vast amounts of gold and he needs to look the part.

 

The pharaoh then walks to the "audience chamber" to hold his daily meetings. As guests enter the room they prostrate themselves in front of him. He is a Divine Majesty - they are mere mortals. As usual, there are ambassadors who are offering tributes from foreign countries, generals talking military matters, the usual nobility and some special envoys from across the empire.

 

The day's audiences completed, he leaves for the temple. As pharaoh, he must pay tribute to the chief god, Amen-Re. It's a pain but, if he doesn't do it, the empire could lose its divine order, or Maat. It could descend into Isfet (chaos) and he would be held responsible. It's not worth the risk.

 

Accompanied by the high priest, the pharaoh walks through the great temple to the sanctuary, enjoying the cool air and smelling the thick incense. Inside, he approaches the statue of Amen-Re. He asks the god some questions and receives answers from the high priest. The questions over, he is presented with a large bull. After prayers, the sacred butcher cuts the bull's throat as a sacrifice to the gods.

 

Afternoon

 

There's nothing like a slaughter to work up a big appetite, so the pharaoh returns to his palace for some lunch. Afterwards, he jumps into his royal chariot for a tour of the city. This is long before photos. Few people know what he looks like, so crowds of Egyptians gather in the streets to catch sight of their divine ruler.

 

Surrounded by bodyguards, he visits some construction sites where magnificent new buildings are being constructed in his honor. Back at the palace, he gets a welcome break. After a day surrounded by people, he can finally be alone and wander through his beautiful gardens.

 

Evening

 

His final daily duty comes in the late afternoon. He returns to the temple for a ceremony that marks the setting of the sun and the end of the day.

 

After that, he goes back home for an early night. After all, even divine majesties need their  sleep!

Ferdinand, the Catholic king of Spain

Ferdinand II,   (born March 10, 1452, Sos, Aragon—died Jan. 23, 1516, Madrigalejo, Spain), king of Aragon and king of Castile (as Ferdinand V) from 1479, joint sovereign with Queen Isabella I. (As Spanish ruler of southern Italy, he was also known as Ferdinand III of Naples and Ferdinand II of Sicily.) He united the Spanish kingdoms into the nation of Spain and began Spain’s entry into the modern period of imperial expansion.

 

Ferdinand was the son of John II of Aragon and Juana Enríquez, both of Castilian origin. In 1461, in the midst of a bitterly contested succession, John II named him heir apparent and governor of all his kingdoms and lands. Ferdinand’s future was assured when he came of age, in 1466, and when he was named king of Sicily, in 1468, in order to impress the court of Castile, where his father ultimately wished to place him. In addition to participating in court life, the young prince saw battle during the Catalonian wars.

 

John II was careful about Ferdinand’s education and took personal charge of it, making sure that Ferdinand learned as much as possible from experience. He also provided him with teachers who taught him humanistic attitudes and wrote him treatises on the art of government. Ferdinand had no apparent bent for formal studies, but he was a patron of the arts and a devotee of vocal and instrumental music.

 

Ferdinand had an imposing personality. From his father he acquired sagacity, integrity, courage, and a calculated reserve; from his mother, an impulsive emotionality, which he generally repressed. Under the responsibility of kingship he had to conceal his stronger passions and adopt a cold, impenetrable mask.

 

He married the princess Isabella of Castile in Valladolid in October 1469. This was a marriage of political opportunism, not romance. The court of Aragon dreamed of a return to Castile, and Isabella needed help to gain succession to the throne. The marriage initiated a dark and troubled life, in which Ferdinand fought on the Castilian and Aragonese fronts in order to impose his authority over the noble oligarchies, shifting his basis of support from one kingdom to the other according to the intensity of the danger. Despite the political nature of the union, he loved Isabella sincerely. She quickly bore him children: the infanta Isabella was born in 1470; the heir apparent, Juan, in 1478; and the infantas Juana (called Juana la Loca—Joan the Mad), Catalina (later called—as the first wife of Henry VIII of England—Catherine of Aragon), and María followed. The marriage began, however, with almost continual separation. Ferdinand, often away in the Castilian towns or on journeys to Aragon, reproached his wife for the comfort of her life. At the same time, the restlessness of his 20 years drove him into other women’s arms, by whom he sired at least two female children, whose birth dates are not recorded. His extramarital affairs caused Isabella jealousy for several years.

 

Between the ages of 20 and 30, Ferdinand performed a series of heroic deeds. These began when Henry IV of Castile died on Dec. 11, 1474, leaving his succession in dispute. Ferdinand rushed from Zaragoza to Segovia, where Isabella had herself proclaimed queen of Castile on December 13. Ferdinand remained there as king consort, an uneasy, marginal figure, until Isabella’s war of succession against Afonso V of Portugal gained his acceptance in 1479 as king in every sense of the word. That same year John II died, and Ferdinand succeeded to the Aragonese throne. This initiated a confederation of kingdoms, which was the institutional basis for modern Spain.

 

The events of this period bring out the young king’s character more clearly. In portraits he appears with soft, well-proportioned features, a small, sensual mouth, and pensive eyes. His literary descriptions are more complicated, although they agree in presenting him as good-looking, of medium height, and a good rider, devoted to games and to the hunt. He had a clear, strong voice.

 

From 1475 to 1479 Ferdinand struggled to take a firm seat in Castile with his young wife and to transform the kingdom politically, using new institutional molds partly inspired by those of Aragon. This policy of modernization included a ban against all religions other than Roman Catholicism. The establishment of the Spanish Inquisition (1478) to enforce religious uniformity and the expulsion of the Jews (1492) were both part of a deliberate policy designed to strengthen the church, which would in turn support the crown.

 

The years 1482–92 were frantic for Ferdinand. In the spring months he directed the campaign against the kingdom of Granada, showing his military talent to good effect, and he conquered the kingdom inch by inch, winning its final capitulation on Jan. 2, 1492. During the months of rest from war, he visited his kingdoms, learning their geography and problems firsthand.

 

The conquest of Granada made it possible to support Christopher Columbus’ voyages of exploration across the Atlantic. It is not known what Ferdinand thought of Columbus or how he judged his plans, nor can it be stated that the first trip was financed from Aragon; the sum of 1,157,000 maravedis came from the funds of the Santa Hermandad (“Holy Brotherhood”). Nevertheless, Ferdinand was present in the development of plans for the enterprise, in the negotiations to obtain the pope’s backing for it, and in the organization of the resulting American colonies.

 

At the age of 50 Ferdinand was an incarnation of royalty, and fortune smiled on him. For various reasons, particularly for his intervention in Italy, Pope Alexander VI gave him the honorary title of “the Catholic” on Dec. 2, 1496. But he also suffered a succession of tragedies: the heir apparent and his eldest daughter both died, and the first symptoms of insanity appeared in his daughter Juana. He was wounded in Barcelona in 1493, but this was unimportant compared with the family injuries he suffered, which culminated in the death of Isabella in 1504, “the best and most excellent wife king ever had.”

 

In 1505, to secure his position in Castile, Ferdinand signed a contract to marry Germaine de Foix, niece of the king of France. This, too, was a political marriage, although he always showed her the highest regard. A stay in Italy (1506–07) demonstrated how badly he was needed by the Spanish kingdoms. Once more in Castile, he managed his European policy so as to obtain a hegemony that would serve his expansionary ends in the Mediterranean and in Africa. In 1512, immediately after the schism in the church in which the kings of Navarre participated, he occupied their kingdom and incorporated it into Castile—one of the most controversial acts of his reign.

 

In 1513 Ferdinand’s health began to decay, although he was still able to direct his international policy and to prepare the succession of his grandson, the future emperor Charles V. In early 1516 he began a trip to Granada; he stopped in Madrigalejo, the little site of the sanctuary of Guadalupe, where he died. The day before his death, he had signed his last will and testament, an excellent picture of the monarch and of the political situation at his death.

 

Many considered Ferdinand the saviour of his kingdoms, a bringer of unity. Others despised him for having oppressed them. Machiavelli attributed to him the objectionable qualities of the Renaissance prince. The German traveler Thomas Müntzer and the Italian diplomat Francesco Guicciardini, who knew him personally, compared him with Charlemagne. His will indicates that he died with a clear conscience, ordering that his body be moved to Granada and buried next to that of his wife Isabella, so that they might be reunited for eternity. He died convinced that the crown of Spain had not been so powerful for 700 years, “and all, after God, because of my work and my labour.”

The opium wars

History of Opium – The Opium Wars.

 

The history of opium goes back to ancient times when the drug was used for ritual purposes and for anesthesia. The ancient Mesopotamians, Egyptians, Indians, and Romans used opium as a pain reliever and often included the drug in surgical procedures to keep pain at bay. The drug is even mentioned in medical texts from the ancient world that date back to the times and writings of Dioscorides, Galen and Avicenna.

 

Opium continued to be used for medical uses up through the American Civil War at which time other medications were developed and derived from the poppy plant to be used. Today, drugs like morphine and opioids are derived from the poppy plant, the same plant that is used to make opium. These opium derivatives are widely used throughout medical practices. The medical world has evolved opium rather significantly over the years and developed new medications that can be injected at controlled doses for better use.

 

Historically, opium was used for recreational purposes during the 15th century but because it was a rare drug that carried a rather high expense, this use was limited. The use of opium would not become a more regular part of Chinese history until the 17th century when the drug is more widely available. During this time, opium was mixed with tobacco and smoked throughout China and opium addiction was first being noticed.

 

The British encouraged Chinese opium use in order to increase the balance of trading that they had with China. As a result, the British would deliver opium from India to China openly. The cultivation of opium, or of the poppy plant in India, was governed by the British under the East India Company. That Company would supervise and oversee the production and shipment of opium for many years.

 

In 1839 as well as in 1858, massive confiscation of opium by the Chinese emperor who wished to stop the opium deliveries led to two Opium Wars. At that time, opium was traded all over the country by the British and opium use would continue to be widespread in domestic production. Ultimately, more than 25% of all Chinese men would be opium consumers by the early 1900s.

 

It wasn’t until the 19th century that opium use for recreational purposes affected other nations. In time, global regulation of the drug would begin but this action would not fully take place until after the 1870s when town ordinances were created in San Francisco, California and other areas. In 1909, the International Opium Commission was formed to further regulate opium.

 

During this time period, opium was being purified into morphine and heroin was also being created from the drug. Both of these would become widely available for recreational use through injection as well as in patent medicines that contained opiates derived from the poppy plant.

 

The 20th century brought major changes as opium was prohibited from many countries. This regulation would greatly reduce the level of opium use but it would also lead to what is now modern production of the drug for illicit street purposes. Tight regulatory practices keep opium that is used to develop legal prescription drugs under check too.

 

Today, opium production is dominated by Afghanistan but the level of production is significantly less than it once was. Worldwide production of opium is estimated at around 7 metric tons per year versus nearly 35 metric tons that were produced in 1906 prior to the major regulatory actions that were taken during the 20th century.

 

The Opium Wars

 

The First Opium War  (1839–42)

The Opium Wars stemmed from China’s attempts to suppress the opium trade and British plans to balance trade with China, whose tea and porcelains had a huge demand.  Also Great Britain, had been looking for a way to end China's restrictions on foreign trade and open more coastal cities to it. Foreign traders (primarily British) had been smuggling opium, mainly from India to China since the 18th century, but that trade grew dramatically from about 1820. The resulting widespread addiction in China was causing serious social and economic disruption there. More than 25% of the population was addicted to opium. In March 1839 the Chinese government confiscated and destroyed more than 20,000 chests of opium—some 1,400 tons of the drug—that were warehoused at Canton (Guangzhou) by British merchants. The antagonism between the two sides increased a few days later when some drunken British sailors killed a Chinese villager. The British government, which did not wish its subjects to be tried in the Chinese legal system, refused to turn the accused men over to the Chinese courts.

 

Hostilities broke out several months later when British warships destroyed a Chinese blockade of the Pearl River (Zhu Jiang) estuary at Hong Kong. The British government decided in early 1840 to send an expeditionary force to China, which arrived at Hong Kong in June. The British fleet proceeded up the Pearl River estuary to Canton, and, after months of negotiations there, attacked and occupied the city in May 1841. Subsequent British campaigns over the next year were likewise successful against the inferior Qing forces, despite a determined counterattack by Chinese troops in the spring of 1842. The British held against that offensive, however, and captured Nanjing (Nanking) in late August, which put an end to the fighting.

 

Peace negotiations proceeded quickly, resulting in the Treaty of Nanjing, signed on August 29. By its provisions, China was required to pay Britain a large indemnity, cede Hong Kong Island to the British, and increase the number of treaty ports where the British could trade and reside from one (Canton) to five. The ports of Guangzhou, Jinmen, Fuzhou, Ningbo, and Shanghai should be open to British trade and residence. Among the four additional designated ports was Shanghai, and the new access to foreigners there marked the beginning of the city’s transformation into one of China’s major commercial entrepôts. The British Supplementary Treaty of the Bogue (Humen), signed October 8, 1843, gave British citizens extraterritoriality (the right to be tried by British courts) and most-favoured-nation status. (Britain was granted any rights in China that might be granted to other foreign countries). Other Western countries quickly demanded and were given similar privileges. Within a few years other Western powers signed similar treaties with China and received commercial and residential privileges, and the Western domination of China's treaty ports began.

 

The second Opium War (1858- 1860 )

 

In the mid-1850s, while the Qing government was embroiled in trying to quell the Taiping Rebellion (1850–64), the British, seeking to extend their trading rights in China, found an excuse to renew hostilities. In early October 1856 some Chinese officials boarded the British-registered ship Arrow while it was docked in Canton, arrested several Chinese crew members (who were later released), and allegedly lowered the British flag. Later that month a British warship sailed up the Pearl River estuary and began bombarding Canton, and there were skirmishes between British and Chinese troops. Trading ceased as a stalemate ensued. In December Chinese in Canton burned foreign factories (trading warehouses) there, and tensions escalated.

 

The French decided to join the British military expedition, using as their excuse the murder of a French missionary in the interior of China in early 1856. After delays in assembling the forces in China (British troops that were en route were first diverted to India to help quell the Indian Mutiny), the allies began military operations in late 1857. They quickly captured Canton, deposed the city’s intransigent governor, and installed a more-compliant official. In April 1858 allied troops in British warships reached Tianjin (Tientsin) and forced the Chinese into negotiations. The treaties of Tianjin, signed in June 1858, provided residence in Beijing for foreign envoys, the opening of several new ports to Western trade and residence, the right of foreign travel in the interior of China, and freedom of movement for Christian missionaries. In further negotiations in Shanghai later in the year, the importation of opium was legalized.

 

The British withdrew from Tianjin in the summer of 1858, but they returned to the area in June 1859 (en route to Beijing to sign the treaties) and were shelled by the Chinese from shore batteries at Dagu at the mouth of the Hai River and driven back with heavy casualties. The Chinese subsequently refused to ratify the treaties, and the allies resumed hostilities. In August 1860 a considerably larger force of warships and British and French troops destroyed the Dagu batteries, proceeded upriver to Tianjin, and, in September, captured Beijing and plundered and then burned the Yuanming Garden, the emperor’s summer palace. Later that year the Chinese signed the Beijing Convention, in which they agreed to observe the treaties of Tianjin and also ceded to the British the southern portion of the Kowloon Peninsula adjacent to Hong Kong.

 

 

“There are no permanent alliances, only permanent interests.”

Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston

 

“What is merit? The opinion one man entertains of another.”

Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston