Prince Klemens von Metternich, an architect of the 19th century Europe

Prince Klemens von Metternich was a conservative Austrian statesman and diplomat who was at the center of the European balance of power known as the Concert of Europe for three decades as the Austrian Empire’s foreign minister from 1809 and Chancellor from 1821 until the liberal Revolutions of 1848 forced his resignation.

 

 Metternich was a champion of conservatism . He believed that the best government was absolutism, but that it was best because it guaranteed equal justice and fair administration for all. In the Habsburg monarchy and in the Italian governments he saved from revolution, he advocated reforms that would provide good government for the people . He was a confident leader who put little faith in popular opinion or sentiment because he believed that the common man was too fickle in his loyalties and too inept to understand the magnitude of foreign policy.

 

The Congress of Vienna (September 1814–June 1815) was the climax of Metternich’s work of reconstruction. The very fact that it was held in Vienna was in itself a great success for him . He had precise ideas about the basis for a new order in Europe, after the napoleonic wars, but knew from the start that he would have to modify them substantially if he was to salvage even a small part of his plans against the opposition of self-interested princes. He wanted to secure Austria’s predominance by forming two confederations, one German and the other Italian, with Austria as the leading power in both. Within Germany, he proposed the creation of a hereditary German imperial title, and he thought that Austria and Prussia should share the task of protecting Germany’s western frontier. Friendship with Prussia on the one hand and with Bavaria on the other thus seemed to him to be the prerequisite of success. Supported by the British foreign secretary, Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, Metternich sought to prevent the elimination of France, which he saw as a necessary counterweight against Russia. Likewise, he resisted the territorial aggrandizement of Russia and Prussia and objected in particular to Prussia’s designs for annexing all of Saxony .

 

After the Congress of Vienna, Metternich continued to play a significant role in European politics. He was able to create a common front of Austria, England, and France that held Russia and Prussia in check. Metternich’s moderation produced a long-lasting European order . He continued to serve as Austria’s foreign minister until 1848 and was a key figure in the Concert of Europe, a series of international meetings aimed at maintaining the balance of power in Europe and preventing the spread of revolution. He was also instrumental in the formation of the German Confederation, a loose association of German states dominated by Austria and Prussia.

 

The Concert of Europe was a general consensus among the great powers of 19th-century Europe to maintain the European balance of power, political boundaries, and spheres of influence . It was an extended period of relative peace and stability in Europe following the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars which had consumed the continent since the 1790s. The Concert of Europe, also known as the Congress System or the Vienna System after the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815), was dominated by the five great powers of Europe: Austria, France, Prussia, Russia, and the United Kingdom. The more conservative members of the Concert of Europe, members of the Holy Alliance (Russia, Austria, and Prussia), used the system to oppose revolutionary and liberal movements and weaken the forces of nationalism.

 

Klemens von Metternich died on June 11, 1859, in Vienna, Austria at the age of 86. He had outlived his generation of politicians and was keen to maintain the balance of power, particularly by resisting Russian territorial ambitions in Central Europe and the Ottoman Empire.

Queen Ahhotep I of Egypt, the fearsome warrior

Queen Ahhotep I was an ancient Egyptian queen who lived circa 1560 – 1530 BC, during the end of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt. She was the daughter of Queen Tetisheri and Senakhtenre Ahmose, and was probably the sister, as well as the queen consort, of Pharaoh Seqenenre Tao II . She had a long and influential life, ruling as regent for her son Ahmose I for a time. Her titles include Great Royal Wife and “Associate of the White Crown Bearer”

 As regent, Queen Ahhotep I played a crucial role in the resistance against the Hyksos. She raised and trained an army, which was led by her son, and provided financial support for the war effort. She also served as an ambassador, negotiating with foreign powers and securing alliances against the Hyksos 1. It is believed that she herself rallied the troops to fight against the Hyksos and was a major source of influence in defeating them. After ousting the Hyksos, it was under her control and guidance that Egypt was unified into one country.

 The term Hyksos, which comes from the Egyptian ḥqꜣ(w)-ḫꜣswt (hekau khasut), meaning “ruler(s) of foreign lands”, designates the kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt (fl. c. 1650–1550 BC) . The Hyksos were a group of people of probable West Semitic, Levantine origin who took control of Lower and Middle Egypt up to Cusae . While they were portrayed as invaders and oppressors by the Greco-Egyptian priest and historian Manetho in the 3rd century BC, this interpretation is questioned in modern Egyptology. Instead, it is thought that Hyksos rule might have been preceded by groups of Canaanite peoples who gradually settled in the Nile delta from the end of the Twelfth Dynasty onwards and who may have seceded from the crumbling and unstable Egyptian control at some point during the Thirteenth Dynasty .

The Hyksos had a significant impact on Egyptian society, culture, and conceptions of kingship. They introduced powerful new weapons, such as the horse-drawn chariot, which revolutionized the Egyptian military . They also integrated their pantheon of Gods into the Egyptian religion, leading to a greater diversity of worship . The archetype of New Kingdom Egypt, considered the apex of ancient Egyptian society, would not have been possible without the influence of these West Asian immigrants or the rule of the Hyksos

 The exact circumstances of Queen Ahhotep I’s death are not known. However, it is believed that she may have died at an advanced age during the reign of Thutmose I . When her son Ahmose I was old enough to rule by himself, Ahhotep I retired to the temple of Karnak and it is believed that she lived there until her death .

King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweeden, the great strategist

King Gustav II Adolf of Sweden, also known as Gustavus Adolphus, was a major figure in the Thirty Years’ War. He is widely commemorated by Protestants in Europe as the main defender of their cause during the war . In July 1630, he landed in the Duchy of Pomerania to intervene in favor of the German Protestants.

 

The Thirty Years’ War was a series of wars fought by various nations for various reasons, including religious, dynastic, territorial, and commercial rivalries. It lasted from 1618 to 1648 and was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history . Its destructive campaigns and battles occurred over most of Europe, and when it ended with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, the map of Europe had been irrevocably changed.

 

 King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweeden in June 1630, landed in Germany, marking the Swedish intervention in the war . He had an army of unusual quality, fighting in a style new to Germany, and he combined tactical innovations with a grander concept of strategy than Europe had seen for many years . By reducing the size of the tactical unit, by opposing a flexible linear formation to the cumbrous massive formations of his opponents, by solving (at least for his time) the perennial problem of combining infantry and cavalry, missile weapons and shock, and, lastly, by producing the first easily maneuverable light artillery, he completed the transformation of the art of war begun by the Dutch commander Maurice of Nassau earlier in the century . In September 1631, at Breitenfeld, the Swedish-Saxon forces shattered Tilly’s army in a battle that was a landmark in the art of war and a turning point in the history of Germany.

 

King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden died at the Battle of Lützen on November 6, 1632. He was leading a cavalry charge when he was separated from his fellow riders and killed by several shots in the thick mix of gun smoke and fog covering the field . Although the Protestants won the battle, they lost a great leader . Gustavus Adolphus Day is celebrated in Finland and Sweden on November 6 every year to commemorate his death .

The birth of Moscovia

Muscovy, also known as the Great Principality of Moscow, was a Russian state that existed from the 13th to the 16th century. It was formed in the northern territories of the first East Slavic state, called Kievan Rus, and was the predecessor of the Russian Tsarate, which in turn was succeeded by the Russian Empire.

 

Muscovy was ruled by an absolute monarchy. The princes of Moscow were descendants of the first prince Daniel, known in modern historiography as the Daniilovichi, a branch of the Rurikovichi. The state originated in 1263 when Daniel inherited the territory as an appanage from his father Alexander Nevsky, Prince of Vladimir-Suzdal.

 

The first Muscovite prince was Daniil Alexandrovich (1283-1303), who secured the principality for his family. His son, Ivan I of Russia (1316-1340), called Ivan Kalita, obtained the title of Grand Prince of Vladimir from the Mongol leaders, who then ruled the land. Those mongols were known as the “Golden Hotde” He cooperated closely with the Mongols, collecting tribute from other principalities that splintered Kievan Rus'. This relationship earned him regional ascendancy, particularly over Moscow's main rival, the Principality of Tver.

 

Daniil Alexandrovich, also known as Saint Daniel of Moscow to the Orthodox Church (1261 - March 4, 1303), was the first prince of Moscow. He was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky and Aleksandra Briachislavna (Vassa, after becoming a nun) .

 

Having started his political career as ruler of the weak Moscow principality, Daniel was involved in civil strife between his older brothers Andrei of Gorodets and Dmitri of Pereslavl. Daniel's participation in the struggle for the Novgorod governorship in 1296 shows that Moscow gained political influence during his reign. In 1301, he imprisoned the Ryazan prince for his intention to conquer the Moscow lands in alliance with the Tatars. To gain freedom, the prisoner ceded his fortress in Kolomna to Daniel, a very important possession as it guaranteed control along the Moskva River. In 1302 his cousin and ally, Ivan of Pereslavl, bequeathed to Daniel all of his lands, including his possessions in Pereslavl-Zalesski.

 

Daniel of Moscow is known as a wise ruler for the policy of making peace between the rulers of neighboring lands and peaceful acquisition of new lands for his own principality. He founded the first monasteries in Moscow: St. Daniel and the Epiphany of the Lord. In one of them he took the rest of his life, taking the habit. He rested in peace in his cell on March 4, 1303. His relics were recovered incorrupt on August 30, 1652. The same year he was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church.

Duchy of Burgundy

The Duchy of Burgundy was a fief that roughly corresponded to the French region of Burgundy. Thanks to its wealth and relatively extensive territory, the duchy was important both politically and economically, serving as the core of the so-called Burgundian State. The initial dynasty of the Dukes of Burgundy came to an end in 1026, with the death without descendants of the house's heir, Duke Otto William of Burgundy. But the duchy had already been annexed in 1016 by Henry I, who became duke in 1061. The title of Duke of Burgundy was granted by the King of France to princes, and a priori to the eldest sons of the Dauphin. Felipe III, Duke of Burgundy, called "Philippe the Good" (in French: Philippe le Bon; Dijon, July 31, 1396 - Bruges, June 15, 1467), was also called Grand Duke of the West due to the breadth of his territories under the influence of the Duchy, which included the Netherlands.

The Burgundian State is a modern term, coined to designate the political union under the authority of the Duke of Burgundy, but which has historical foundations as it derives from the same denominations of the 15th and 16th centuries. This conglomerate of territories lacked a unique title that expressed the idea of political unity, but the Duchy of Burgundy stands out among all of them, since the holder of the duchy was the Grand Master and Sovereign Head of the Order of the Golden Fleece. The State Burgundian or Burgundian Estates refers to all possessions acquired by the Dukes of Burgundy and their heirs over nearly two centuries, between 1363 and 1559.

 

The Duke of Burgundy tried to establish a link between the Burgundian lands proper and the northern Dutch lands to create a Burgundian kingdom. However, the Burgundian State lacked a singular title that expressed the idea of political unity. Furthermore, the Burgundian State or Burgundian Estates refers to all the possessions acquired by the Dukes of Burgundy and their heirs during almost two centuries, between 1363 and 1559, as said above

Pharaoh Horemheb

Horemheb was the last pharaoh of the 18th dynasty of Egypt. His name means “Horus is in jubilation” . He ruled Egypt between 1323 and 1295 BC, after a period of political turmoil . Horemheb was a general and decided to build himself a magnificent tomb upon accessing the throne of Egypt. This tomb has become one of the main attractions of the Valley of the Kings since its discovery in 1905.

Horemheb came from the lower classes of Egypt and worked himself up through the ranks of the army to become commander-in-chief of the Egyptian military before becoming pharaoh . After his accession to the throne, he initiated a nation-wide campaign to erase his immediate predecessor’s names from history and revitalize the nation that had declined under Akhenaten’s rule. The heretical monotheist phraoh who shunned all the egyptians old gods. . He is generally considered a good pharaoh, but whether he is a hero or villain depends upon one’s view of Akhenaten’s reign and Horemheb’s reaction to it.

 

Horemheb continued the restoration of the traditional Amon religion that, Akhenaten, had replaced with the worship of the god Aton . He completed the dismantling of the temples of Aton built at Karnak in order to suppress what was considered an aberrant religion . At the same time, he restored many of the damaged reliefs and statues portraying the god Amon and erected three of the largest pylons at Karnak, as well as several other significant monuments in the Theban area . Horemheb brought stability and prosperity back to Ancient Egypt after the chaotic rule of the “Armana Kings”

 

It is not yet proven whether Horemheb had really exorcised the Amarna period; the great iconoclasm began only after his death . After Horemheb’s death, his vizier, the general Ramses I, became his successor and founded the 19th dynasty (1292–1190 bc)

Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate

Julian, also known as Julian the Apostate, was a Roman emperor from 361 to 363. He was a nephew of Constantine the Great and a notable philosopher and author in Greek.  Julian publicly announced his conversion to paganism in 361, thus acquiring the epithet “the Apostate”

 Julian was born in 331 or 332 in Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey) . He was the son of Julius Constantius and Basilina . Julian became an orphan as a child after his father was executed in 337, and spent much of his life under Emperor Constantius’s close supervision . However, the emperor allowed Julian to freely pursue an education in the Greek-speaking east, with the result that Julian became unusually cultured for an emperor of his time .

 

Julian was a man of unusually complex character. He was the last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire, and he believed that it was necessary to restore the Empire’s ancient Roman values and traditions in order to save it from dissolution. He purged the top-heavy state bureaucracy, and attempted to revive traditional Roman religious practices at the expense of Christianity . In 351, he converted to the pagan Neoplatonism, recently “reformed” by Iamblichus, and was initiated into theurgy by Maximus of Ephesus .

 

In 355, Constantius II summoned Julian to court and appointed him to rule Gaul. Despite his inexperience, Julian showed unexpected success in his new capacity, defeating and counterattacking Germanic raids across the Rhine and encouraging the ravaged provinces’ return to prosperity . In 360, he was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers at Lutetia (Paris), sparking a civil war with Constantius. However, Constantius died before the two could face each other in battle, and named Julian as his successor .

 

In 363, Julian embarked on an ambitious campaign against the Sasanian Empire. The campaign was initially successful, securing a victory outside Ctesiphon in Mesopotamia. However, he did not attempt to besiege the capital. Julian instead moved into Persia’s heartland, but he soon faced supply problems and was forced to retreat northwards while being ceaselessly harassed by Persian skirmishers. During the Battle of Samarra, Julian was mortally wounded under mysterious circumstances. He died on June 26 or 27, 363 in Ctesiphon, Mesopotamia .